浅析侵权责任的归责原则

章建国


一、侵权责任的概念和特点

　　侵权责任又称侵权的民事责任，与债务不履行的民事责任共同构成民事责任。侵权责任是指因实施侵权行为而发生的民事责任。侵权的民事责任是行为人违反消极义务而发生的责任，在一定意义上可以说是不应为而为的民事责任。在侵权民事责任发生前，行为人与权利人之间一般不存在具体的债务。
侵权责任作为民事责任的一种，当然具有民事责任的一般特点，但其又具有不同于其他民事责任的特点：
（一）侵权责任是违反法定义务的法律后果。
民事义务分为法定义务和约定义务，行为人违反约定的民事义务产生违约责任，而违反法定义务则产生侵权责任。
（二）侵权责任是以侵权行为为事实根据所产生的责任
没有侵权行为，就没有侵权责任，侵权行为与侵权责任是不可分的一个问题的两个方面。侵权行为是侵权责任的事实根据，而侵权责任是侵权行为的必然法律后果。
（三）侵权责任的形式不限于财产责任
　　违约责任是财产责任，与违约责任不同，虽然侵权责任的主要形式是财产责任，但是，为充分保护公民、法人的人身权利，当行为人侵害他人的人身权以后，法律也规定了一些非财产责任形式。如赔礼道歉、恢复名誉、消除影响等。
（四）侵权责任具有法定性
　　侵权责任不允许当事人事先加以约定，即使当事人事先有约定，该约定也是无效的。

二、侵权责任的构成要件

　　侵权责任的构成要件是指侵权行为人承担侵权责任所应当具备的条件。行为人实施了侵害他人合法民事权益的行为，但只有符合一定的条件，才能承担侵权责任。
　　侵权责任的构成要件因具体侵权行为的不同而有所差异，与归责原则、法律的特殊规定以及侵权责任的形式密不可分。所以，适用所有的侵权责任的构成要件是不存在的，理论上，只能就一般的侵权责任的构成要件进行阐述。

（一）损害后果
　　损害后果的客观存在是确定侵权责任的首要的必要的条件。所谓损害，是指因人的行为或对象的危险性而导致人身财产方面的合法权益所遭受的不利后果。该损害是客观存在的，是侵害合法民事权益的客观后果；该损害是确定的，是已经发生、真实存在且能够认定的，包括有造成损害的现实危险性；该损害具有法律上的补救性，即补救的必要性——在量上必须达到一定程度和补救的可能性——能用一定的形式填补权利人所遭受的缺损。损害包括财产损害、人身损害、人格损害和精神损害。
（二）因果关系
　　这里所说的因果关系是行为与损害之间的因果关系，即行为是导致损害的原因，损害是行为的必然结果，所要解决的是侵权责任是否成立的问题。其表现形式有一因一果、一因多果、多因一果和多因多果四种。至于如何确定行为与损害之间具有因果关系，大陆法系多采用相当因果关系说，即“无此行为，虽不必生此损害，有此行为，通常即足以生此种损害者，是为有因果关系。无此行为，必不生此种损害，有此行为，通常亦不生此种损害者，即无因果关系。”同时，当因果形式是多因一果或多因多果状态下，在确定因果关系时，还要充分考量损害的原因力，即哪些行为是损害的主要原因，哪些是次要原因，哪些是直接原因，哪些是间接原因，唯有如此，才能确定行为人是否承担侵权责任以及责任的大小。
（三）行为的违法性
　　行为的违法性包括形式的违法和实质的违法。所谓形式的违法是指行为与法律的明文规定相抵触。所谓实质违法是指行为不是从形式上而是从实质上违法，这种行为虽然不能确定违反的具体法律规则，但它却违反了法律精神和法律原则。
（四）过错
　　过错作为一般侵权责任的构成要件，是一种主观条件，是行为人实施不法行为时的心理状态，是行为人对自己行为的损害后果的主观态度。但是，如果要确定行为人是否存在这种心理状态却要借助于其外在表征即行为本身。过错的形式分为故意和过失两种。其中，过失又分为轻过失和重大过失。如果行为人不仅没有遵守法律对其的较高要求，而且，连人们都应当注意并能够注意的一般标准也没有达到，这种过错就是重大过错。

三、侵权责任的归责原则

　　侵权责任的归责原则是指据以确定行为人承担侵权责任的依据，是侵权责任法的核心。指导并制约着侵权行为的分类、侵权责任的构成、举证责任的分担、免责条件和减轻责任的事由以及赔偿方法等等。可以说，没有侵权责任的归责原则即无从确定侵权行为的责任承担，此错则方向错。所以，只有确立了合理的归责原则，侵权行为法才能形成完整的体系。

（一）归责原则的分类

　　民法理论上，由于确立归责原则的标准不同，学者对归责原则体系的构造产生较大的分歧。主要有一元说、二元说和三元说。我国主流观点认为侵权责任的归责原则包括如下三项：过错责任原则、无过错责任原则、公平责任原则。
1、过错责任原则。
　　《中华人民共和国侵权责任法》第6条规定：“行为人因过错侵害他人民事权益，应当承担侵权责任。根据法律规定推定行为人有过错，行为人不能证明自己没有过错的，应当承担侵权责任。”《民法通则》第106条第2款规定：“公民、法人由于过错侵害国家的、集体的财产，侵害他人的财产、人身的，应当承担民事责任。”《德国民法典》第823条规定：“因故意或过失不法侵害他人的生命、身体、健康、自由、所有权或其他权利者，对受害人负赔偿损害的义务。”都是关于过错责任的法律规定。其基本精神是：没有过错，就没有侵权责任。因此，按照过错责任原则，过错是决定过错责任是否成立的必不可少的主观要件。.
　　过错原则作为侵权责任法的基本归责原则，适用于一般的侵权行为，只有在法律明确规定的情况下，才适用其他归责原则。
　　过错的判断标准，通常要结合主观（心理状态）和客观（行为）两个方面。可以用主观标准来认定过错的，就无需运用客观标准。只有当无法用主观标准确定故意的场合，则用客观标准来认定过错。所谓客观标准即一般人的注意标准，如果行为人只要尽到轻微的注意即可预见某种情形，但其未注意，即为有过失。但是，无论是主观标准还是客观标准，就其本质属性而言，仍然是人的主观心理状态。
　　过错程度对责任承担产生影响，侵权行为人所应负的责任应与其过错程度相一致。如《侵权责任法》第12条规定：“两人以上分别实施侵权行为造成同一损害，能够确定责任大小的，各自承担相应的责任；难以确定责任大小的，平均承担责任。”但在多元归责原则体系下，确定责任时，除考虑行为人的过错外，还应考虑其他因素。
　　根据《中华人民共和国侵权责任法》第6条第2款的规定，我国的侵权责任的归责原则中的过错责任包括过错推定。过错推定的构成要件与一般过错责任归责原则下的构成要件相同，即损害后果、因果关系、行为的违法性和过错。只不过在过错推定情形下，受害人将前三项要件举证后，法院即可推定行为人有过错，除非行为人能举证证明其主观上没有过错，否则，推定的过错成立，行为人因此必须承担侵权责任。
2、无过错责任原则
　　无过错责任原则的特点是在确定侵权责任时，不考虑行为人是否有过错，也无需推定行为人具有过错，但其适用范围由法律特别规定。《民法通则》第106条第3款规定： “没有过错，但法律规定应当承担民事责任的，应当承担民事责任。”《中华人民共和国侵权责任法》第7条规定：“行为人损害他人民事权益，不论行为人有无过错，法律规定应当承担侵权责任的，依照其规定”是我国关于无过错责任原则的规定。
　　在无过错责任下，侵权的构成要件有三：损害后果、行为的违法性、因果关系。受害人需要就上述三项要件承担举证责任，而对行为人主观上有过错不负举证责任。除了法定的抗辩事由外，行为人不能以自己没有过错为由进行抗辩。对于免责的法定事由，必须由行为人承担举证责任。至于第三人责任，只有在侵权特别法中有规定时，方可成为行为人的免责事由，如《海洋环境保护法》中有此规定。
3、公平责任原则
　　公平责任原则是指在当事人对造成的损害都没有过错，而又不能适用过错责任原则和无过错责任原则的情况下，由法院根据实际情况确定责任的归责原则。是其它两种归责原则的补充，适用范围有严格限制，且前提是双方当事人都没有过错。《民法通则》第132条规定：“当事人对造成的损害都没有过错的，可以根据实际情况，由当事人分担责任。”《中华人民共和国侵权责任法》第24条规定：“受害人和行为人对损害的发生都没有过错的，可以根据实际情况，由双方分担损失。”都是关于公平责任原则的规定。至于“可以根据实际情况”8个字，可以理解为法官的自由裁量权，但是，当法律规定必须补偿时，法官不能裁判让某一方承担全部损失。
国务院


国务院关于口岸开放的若干规定(附英文)

1985年9月18日，国务院

规定
随着我国对外贸易、国际交往和旅游事业的发展，将进一步开放新的口岸。为加强口岸开放的审批工作，特制定本规定。
一、本规定所指口岸是供人员、货物和交通工具出入国境的港口、机场、车站、通道等。口岸分为一类口岸和二类口岸。一类口岸是指由国务院批准开放的口岸（包括中央管理的口岸和由省、自治区、直辖市管理的部分口岸）；二类口岸是指由省级人民政府批准开放并管理的口岸。
二、口岸的开放和关闭，由国务院或省级人民政府审批后公布执行。
三、凡开放口岸，应根据需要设立边防检查、海关、港务监督、卫生检疫、动植物检疫、商品检验等检查检验机构，以及国家规定的其他口岸机构。
四、两类口岸的具体划分：
（一）以下为一类口岸：
1、对外国籍船舶、飞机、车辆等交通工具开放的海、陆、空客货口岸；
2、只允许我国籍船舶、飞机、车辆出入国境的海、陆、空客货口岸；
3、允许外国籍船舶进出我国领海内的海面交货点。
（二）以下为二类口岸：
1、依靠其他口岸派人前往办理出入境检查检验手续的国轮外贸运输装卸点、起运点、交货点；
2、同毗邻国家地方政府之间进行边境小额贸易和人员往来的口岸；
3、只限边境居民通行的出入境口岸。
五、报批程序：
（一）一类口岸：由有关部（局）或港口、码头、车站、机场和通道所在地的省级人民政府会商大军区后，报请国务院批准，同时抄送国务院口岸领导小组、总参谋部和有关主管部门。
（二）二类口岸：由口岸所在地的人民政府征得当地大军区和海军的同意，并会商口岸检查检验等有关单位后，报请省级人民政府批准。批文同时送国务院口岸领导小组和有关主管部门备案。
六、报批开放口岸应附具下列资料：
（一）对口岸开放进行的可行性研究报告，以及口岸的基本条件、近三年客货运量、经济效益和发展前景的资料。
（二）根据客货运输任务提出的有关检查检验单位、口岸办公室、中国银行等机构设置和人员编制方案。
（三）检查检验场地和办公、生活设施等规划，以及投资预算和资金来源。
七、对外开放前的验收：
（一）新开放的口岸，在开放前必须对其交通安全设施、通信设施、联检场地、检查检验等单位的机构设置和人员配备，以及办公、生活设施等进行验收。验收合格后，才能宣布开放。
（二）一类口岸，由国务院口岸领导小组办公室负责组织验收；二类口岸，由所在省、自治区、直辖市口岸办公室或其他主管口岸工作的部门负责组织验收。
八、临时进出我国非开放区域的审批权限：
（一）临时从我国非开放的港口或沿海水域进出的中、外国籍船舶，由交通部审批，并报国务院口岸领导小组备案。报批前应征得军事主管部门和当地人民政府以及有关检查检验单位的同意，并安排好检查检验工作。
（二）临时从我国非开放机场起降的中、外国籍民用飞机，由中国民用航空局征得军事主管部门同意后审批，非民用飞机由军事主管部门审批，并报国务院口岸领导小组备案。报批前应征得当地人民政府和有关检查检验部门的同意，并安排好检查检验工作。
（三）临时从我国非开放的陆地边界区域进出境的中、外国籍车辆和人员，由省级人民政府审批。报批前应征得当地省军区和公安部门的同意，并安排好检查检验工作。
九、口岸开放应有计划地进行，按隶属关系分别列入国家或地方口岸开放计划。国务院有关部门和省、自治区、直辖市应将口岸开放计划（草案），于计划年度前两个月报国务院口岸领导小组，并抄报国家计委、劳动人事部和检查检验单位的有关主管部门。
十、开放口岸检查检验设施建设资金来源：
（一）中央管理的口岸，由中央负责解决；地方管理的口岸，由地方负责解决。
（二）国家新建开放的港口、码头、车站和机场（含军用改为军民合用的机场）等口岸建设项目（包括利用外资和中外合资项目），以及老口岸新建作业区和经济开发区的新港区等项目，所需联检场地应与港口、码头、车站、机场等主体工程统一规划。所需投资包括在主体工程之内。
检查检验单位办公、生活土建设施（包括宿舍）的投资，由口岸建设项目的主管部门组织有关单位研究，统一汇总报国家计委审批。批准后，投资划拨给口岸所在地的省、自治区、直辖市，由地方统一规划，统一设计施工。军用改建为军民合用机场的口岸项目，应事先征得空军或海军同意，如在机场内建设，建设单位可提出要求，由空军或海军统一规划。
（三）各部（局）直属的原有港口、码头、车站和机场需要对外开放时，所需联检场地，原则上要利用原有建筑设施。如确需扩建、新建，应由港口、码头、车站和机场的主管部门投资建设。检查检验单位的办公、生活土建设施（包括宿舍）的投资，原则上由各自主管部门解决。对确有困难的，国家或地方给予适当补助，由地方统一建设，投资交地方包干使用。
（四）地方新开口岸，所需联检场地和检查检验单位的办公、生活土建设施（包括宿舍），由地方统一投资，统一建设。
（五）国际海员俱乐部的建设规划和投资来源，比照（二）、（三）、（四）项规定解决。
（六）检查检验单位所需的交通工具、仪器设备等，由各自主管部门解决。
（七）联检场地内，划给检查检验单位的办公和业务用房（包括水、电、市内电话），应由港口、码头、车站和机场（包括军民合用的机场）的经营单位免费提供。
十一、本规定由国务院口岸领导小组办公室负责解释。
十二、本规定自发布之日起施行。

PROVISIONS OF THE STATE COUNCIL ON THE OPENING OF PORTS

Important Notice: (注意事项)
英文本源自中华人民共和国务院法制局编译, 中国法制出版社出版的《中华人民
共和国涉外法规汇编》(1991年7月版).
当发生歧意时, 应以法律法规颁布单位发布的中文原文为准.
This English document is coming from the "LAWS AND REGULATIONS OF THE
PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA GOVERNING FOREIGN-RELATED MATTERS" (1991.7)
which is compiled by the Brueau of Legislative Affairs of the State
Council of the People's Republic of China, and is published by the China
Legal System Publishing House.
In case of discrepancy, the original version in Chinese shall prevail.

Whole Document (法规全文)
PROVISIONS OF THE STATE COUNCIL ON THE OPENING OF PORTS
(Promulgated on September 18, 1985)
With the development of our foreign trade, international exchanges and
tourisms, more ports will be opened. These Provisions are formulated in
order to strengthen the work in the examination and approval for opening
ports to foreign countries.
1. The term "ports" referred to in these Provisions denotes the harbours,
airports, stations, thoroughfares, etc., which are used for personnel,
goods or means of transport to enter or leave the country. The ports in
our country are divided into two categories. Category-1 ports refer to
those ports which have been opened upon the approval of the State Council
(including those administered by the Central Government and some of the
ports administered by the provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities
directly under the Central Government); category-2 ports refer to those
ports which have been opened upon approval by the people's governments at
the provincial level and are administered by them.
2. The opening and closing of ports shall be announced and executed after
the examination and approval by the State Council or the people's
governments at the provincial level.
3. Organs in charge of frontier inspection, Customs, harbour
superintendency, quarantine, quarantine for animals and plants, commodity
inspection, etc., as well as other port organs stipulated by State shall
be set up at the open ports according to the actual needs.
4. Criteria for the division of the two categories of ports:
(1) The following are category-1 ports:
A. ports open to vessels, planes, vehicles and other means of transport of
foreign nationality used to transport passengers and goods into or out of
China through sea, land or air;
B. ports for use only by Chinese vessels, planes and vehicles transporting
passengers and goods out of or into the country through sea, land or air;
C. spots on the sea within our territorial waters where vessels of foreign
nationality are allowed to enter or leave for the purpose of delivering
goods.
(2) The following are category-2 ports:
A. spots for loading and unloading, starting shipment and delivering goods
for Chinese vessels engaged in foreign trade where the formalities for
exit and entry inspection and examination are conducted by personnel sent
from other ports;
B. ports where border trade in small amounts and contacts between people
are carried out with local governments of neighbouring countries;
C. ports restricted to the exit or entry of the local residents in the
border areas.
5. The procedures for report and approval:
(1) Category-1 ports: the relevant ministries (or bureaus) or the people's
governments of the provinces where the harbours, wharves, stations,
airports and thoroughfares in question are situated shall, after
consultation with the military area commands, submit the application to
the State Council for approval, with copies of the application sent to the
Leading Group for Port Affairs of the State Council, the Headquarters of
the General Staff of the People's Liberation Army and the relevant
competent departments.
(2) Category-2 ports: The people's governments of the regions where the
ports in question are situated shall first obtain the agreement of the
military area commands concerned and the Navy, and hold consultations with
the units in charge of port inspection and examination. Applications shall
then be submitted to the people's governments at the provisional level for
approval, with copies of which sent to the Leading Group for Port Affairs
under the State Council and the relevant competent departments for the
record.
6. The following materials should be attached to application for opening a
port:
(1) A feasibility report, the materials concerning the basic conditions of
the ports, the volume of passenger transport and freight volume in the
last three years, and the potential economic results and the prospects for
development.
(2) The plan for the establishment of such port organs as offices in
charge of inspection and examination, offices for port affairs and
branches of the Bank of China, according to the task for transporting
passengers and goods.
(3) Plans for constructing inspection and examination grounds and for
building facilities for office work and the daily life of the staff
members, as well as investment budget and source of funds.
7. Final check-up and acceptance before a port is opened:
(1) Before a new port is opened, the establishment of organs and the
provisions of staff members of offices in charge of traffic safety, for
telecommunications, combined inspection and examination as well as
facilities for office work and daily life must go through the procedure of
final check-up and acceptance. New ports may be opened only after the
facilities are finally checked and accepted.
(2) The office of the Leading Group for Port Affairs of the State Council
shall be responsible for the check-up and acceptance of category-1 ports.
The offices for port affairs in the provinces, autonomous regions and
municipalities directly under the Central Government or other competent
departments in charge of port affairs shall be responsible for the check-
up and acceptance of category-2 ports.
8. The competence for examination and approval of applications for
temporarily entry and exit at the non-open areas of our country:
(1) Applications by vessels of Chinese or foreign nationality for
temporarily entry or exit at non-open harbours or coastal waters of China
shall be examined and approved by the Ministry of Communications and
reported to the Leading Group for Port Affairs of the State Council for
the record. Before the applications are submitted for approval, the
agreement of the competent authorities for military affairs, the local
people's governments and the relevant units in charge of examination and
inspection shall be obtained, and the details of the examination and
inspection work shall be arranged.
(2) Applications by civil planes of Chinese or foreign nationality for
temporarily take-offs or landings at China's non-open airports shall be
examined and approved by the Civil Aviation Administration of China,
which, however, should obtain the agreement of the competent authorities
for military affairs. Applications by non-civil planes shall be examined
and approved by the competent authorities for military affairs. Both kinds
of applications must be reported to the Leading Group for Port Affairs of
the State Council for the record. Before the applications are submitted
for approval, the agreement of the local people's governments and the
relevant departments for examination and inspection should be obtained,
and the details of the examination and inspection work shall be arranged.
(3) Applications by vehicle and personnel of Chinese or foreign
nationality for temporarily entry and exit at our non-open border areas on
land shall be examined and approved by the people's governments at the
provincial level. Before the applications are submitted for approval, the
agreement of the relevant provincial military area command and the
department of public security shall be obtained, and the details of the
examination and inspection work shall be arranged.
9. New ports shall be opened according to the relevant State or local
plans. The competent departments under the State Council, and the
provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities directly under the
Central Government, shall send plans (drafts) of opening ports to the
Leading Group for Port Affairs of the State Council two months before a
planned year begins, with copies sent to the State Planning Commission,
the Ministry of Labour and Personnel and the relevant competent
departments of the units in charge of inspection and examination.
10. The sources of funds for building facilities for inspection and
examination at the open ports:
(1) The Central Government shall be responsible for providing the funds
for the ports under its administration. The local people's governments
shall be responsible for providing funds for the ports under their
administration.
(2) Where grounds for combined inspection and examinations are needed in
such port construction projects (including projects with foreign
investment and Chinese and foreign equity joint-venture projects) as
harbours, wharves, railway stations and airports (including those which
have been transformed from military airports used for both military and
civilian purposes) as well as in such projects as newly-built operation
areas at old ports and new harbour areas in economic development zones,
the construction of these grounds shall be incorporated into the plans of
the main projects of the prescribed harbours, wharves, railway stations
and airports. The investment needed for the construction of these grounds
shall be incorporated in the investment for the main projects. The
competent departments for port construction projects shall organize the
relevant units to carry out research on the investment structure for the
construction of the facilities for office work and for the daily life of
the staff members (including dormitories) of the units in charge of
inspection and examination and present itemized reports to the State
Planning Commission for examination and approval. After the approval is
obtained, the investment shall be transferred to the provinces, autonomous
regions and municipalities directly under the Central Government where the
ports are situated. The local people's governments shall be responsible
for the unified planning, designing and construction of the ports. Where
military airports are to be transformed into airports for both military
and civilian purposes, agreement should be obtained from the Air Force or
the Navy beforehand. In the case that the construction is to be carried
out within the airports, the units responsible for the construction may
submit draft plans, which shall be incorporated in the unified plans of
the Air Force or the Navy.
(3) Where the existing harbours, wharves, railway stations and airports
directly under the administration of various ministries (or bureaus) need
to be opened, the grounds for combined inspection and examination for
these ports shall, in principle, be set up by making use of the existing
buildings and facilities. If it is necessary to extend the original
buildings or build new grounds for combined inspection and examination,
the competent departments for the harbours, wharves, railway stations and
airports shall be responsible for the investment. The investment for the
construction of the facilities for office work and the daily life of the
staff members (including dormitories) of the units in charge of inspection
and examination shall, in principle, be provided by their respective
competent departments. In the extreme cases of difficulty with respect to
investment, the State or the local governments may provide appropriate
subsidies. The investment shall be turned over to the relevant people's
governments, which are held responsible for the completion of the
construction.
(4) The local people's governments shall be responsible for the investment
and construction of the grounds for combined inspection and examination
and the infrastructure facilities for office work and the daily life of
the staff members (including dormitories) of the units in charge of
inspection and examination, which are needed in their newly-opened ports.
(5) The construction plans and sources of investment for international
seamen's clubs shall be provided in accordance with the provisions of
Paragraphs (2), (3) and (4) of this Article.
(6) The means of transport, instruments, equipment, etc., needed by the
units in charge of inspection and examination shall be provided by their
respective competent departments.
(7) Within grounds for combined inspection and examination, the rooms for
office work and other related purposes (including water, electricity and
inner-city telephone) which have been assigned to the units in charge of
inspection and examination shall be provided free of charge by the
business units of the harbours, wharves, railway stations and airports
(including those used for both military and civilian purposes).
11. These Provisions shall be interpreted by the office of the Leading
Group for Port Affairs of the State Council.